{"id":13,"date":"2020-06-01T08:02:47","date_gmt":"2020-06-01T12:02:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.esm.rochester.edu\/beethoven\/?page_id=13"},"modified":"2021-10-25T08:20:19","modified_gmt":"2021-10-25T12:20:19","slug":"orchestra-discussions","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.esm.rochester.edu\/beethoven\/orchestra-discussions\/","title":{"rendered":"Beethoven’s Classical Inheritance: the Symphony and the Orchestra"},"content":{"rendered":"

The Symphony in the Late Eighteenth Century<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792, and completed his First Symphony in 1800. Exploring Beethoven\u2019s genius in the symphonic genre requires an understanding of the genre which Beethoven inherited.\u00a0 What was the symphony in the late eighteenth century, as understood by Beethoven?\u00a0 There are many models of works that can shed light on this, and theorists and critics of the day have also left many contemporary descriptions of what \u201csymphony\u201d meant in the years leading up to Beethoven\u2019s first symphonic composition.\u00a0 These descriptions tend to agree on three common characteristics:\u00a0 1) it is a work for instruments<\/em>, most commonly the string-centric ensemble we now call orchestra<\/em>, 2) it functions as a dramatic<\/em> work within different performance settings, and 3) its dramatic content fits into specific expectations about musical structure.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

One of the most complete descriptions of the symphony during this time was J. A. P. Schulz\u2019s<\/a> entry \u201cSymphonie\u201d in the 1774 edition of Johann Georg Sulzer\u2019s<\/a> influential multi-volume dictionary Allgemeine Theorie der Sch\u00f6nen<\/em> (General Theory of the Fine Arts<\/em>), which continued to be revised and reissued until 1798. Bathia Churgin\u2019s 1980 translation of Schulz\u2019s complete \u201cSymphonie\u201d entry, with a fine commentary, can be read here<\/a>, but select portions of Schulz\u2019s description in Churgin\u2019s translation will serve as starting points for highlighting and clarifying the three characteristics identified above.<\/span><\/p>\n

1. A symphony is an instrumental work<\/em>, generally for orchestra<\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n

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\u201c<\/em>The instruments that belong to the symphony are violins, violas, and bass instruments; each part is strongly reinforced. Horns, oboes, and flutes can be used in addition for filling out or strengthening.<\/em>\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Schulz\u2019s description is consistent with a gradual standardization of orchestral instruments that emerged in the first two-thirds of the eighteenth century. The pervasive Italian influence early in the century established a four-part string texture consisting of violin 1, violin 2, viola, and basso<\/em> which would include cello and double bass (violone), possibly a bassoon, and an instrument that could play chords such as a harpsichord or organ. To this four-part string texture could be added two oboe parts and two horn parts for tone-color and dramatic variety, resulting in what was sometimes referred to as the \u201cOrchestra of 8\u201d (four string parts, four wind parts).\u00a0 At times, oboes could be replaced by flutes, or less often, a flute or two might join the winds.\u00a0 Schulz does not mention that for more celebratory occasions two trumpets and timpani could also be added to the Orchestra of 8, resulting in an \u201cOrchestra of 11\u201d (four string parts, four wind parts, two trumpet parts, one timpani part).\u00a0 Schulz is careful to distinguish that only the string parts were \u201cstrongly reinforced\u201d by having multiple players on each part; winds were generally one to a part. By the late 1770s, symphony composers regularly expanded the wind colors of the orchestra, reflecting the influence of the court Harmonie<\/a><\/em>\u2014wind ensemble\u2014the core of which included two oboes, two horns, and two bassoons, but could have other wind instruments such as flutes and clarinets added or replacing the oboes. By Beethoven\u2019s day, the winds in symphonies included two each of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn, and trumpet, along with timpani.\u00a0 More details on the development of the orchestra, and the specific instruments of Beethoven\u2019s day, appear in the \u201cBeethoven\u2019s Orchestra\u201d essay below.<\/span><\/p>\n

2. A symphony is a dramatic<\/em> work, functioning differently depending on the performance setting.<\/span><\/p>\n

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\u201cThe symphony is excellently suited for the expression of the grand, the festive, and the noble. Its purpose is to prepare the listeners for an important musical work, or in a chamber concert to summon up all the splendor of instrumental music. If it is to satisfy this aim completely and be a closely bound part of the opera or church music that it precedes, then besides being the expression of the grand and festive, it must have an additional quality that puts the listeners in the frame of mind required by the piece to come, and it must distinguish itself through the style of composition that makes it appropriate for the church or the theater. . . .[It] is often of pleasant, pathetic, or sad expression.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Schulz emphasizes that a symphony functions as dramatic music, whether to prepare an audience for a subsequent theatrical work (opera, oratorio, play) or liturgical piece, or as a self-standing \u201cchamber symphony.\u201d This indeed reflects a prevailing eighteenth-century tripartite stylistic division of music functioning in the Theater, the Church, or as Chamber music\u2014by Beethoven\u2019s day the independent \u201cchamber symphony\u201d had become the prevailing model\u2014but in all cases a symphony is to convey a dramatic experience. The sound of the music itself was certainly capable of guiding the listeners\u2019 thoughts through various emotions, places, and states of being, and during the eighteenth century more specific dramatic topics (topoi<\/em>) became commonplace in symphonic language.\u00a0 A topic (topos<\/em>) is created by using a series of musical characteristics such as meters, tempos, keys, rhythms, melodic shapes, motivic and ornamental gestures, and instrumentation, to take the listener to a place or emotional state, i.e. a dramatic scene or situation.\u00a0 Such meaning was generated by the use of musical ideas over and over again in similar theatrical settings, thus becoming recognized or conventionalized as associated with these settings, and by imitation of natural or recognizable things in what artistic theorists referred to as mimesis<\/a><\/em>. The specificity of topical dramatization in symphonies became so clear that composers began identifying pieces of literature, historic events, and other recognizable extra-musical occasions with their symphonies. \u00a0By 1800, music encyclopedias began to include the genre \u201cCharacteristic Symphony\u201d as a category of symphony directly related to a specific extra-musical inspiration identified by the composer.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Here is a list (not exhaustive) of some of the more common topoi<\/em> found in late eighteenth-century symphonies, many related to the states Schulz mentions in the quote above and in other places throughout his symphony description. Links to orchestral works with which Beethoven likely would have been familiar exemplify each topos<\/em>:<\/span><\/p>\n

Brilliant<\/em>: flashy, showy, fast notes in faster tempos, often associated with Comedy. Haydn, Symphony No. 60 in C \u201cIl distratto,\u201d finale.<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

C-Major (fanfare) style<\/em>: majestic, celebratory, fanfares, dotted rhythms, triadic themes, use of trumpets and timpani. Opening of Mozart, Symphony No. 41 in C \u201cJupiter\u201d (0:00-0:47).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Galant<\/em> or Courtly<\/em>: Quaint, often relaxed, yet some sophistication of harmony and melody, predictable phrase lengths (multiples of four).\u00a0 Most often associated with the minuet (moderate triple meter) and simple andante march. Haydn, Symphony No. 88 in G, mvt. 3<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Hunt <\/em>(Le Chasse<\/em>): usually very fast compound meter (6\/8), often polyphonic, with quick eighth-note horn call passages in horns or oboes.\u00a0 Found often in finale movements. Haydn, Symphony No. 73 in D, finale<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Janissary (Turkish): <\/em>tactfully used to represent “the other” i.e. peoples from the Ottoman Empire, or battle and armies.\u00a0 Drones, very static harmony, highly repetitions melodic patterns reflecting minor or modal scales usually played by oboe, clarinet (basset horn) or piccolo, uneven or unusual phrase lengths (7 bars, 11 bars, or a 4- or 8- or 12-bar phrase with a 2-measure “tag” on the end), instrumentation sometimes includes trumpets, piccolos, contrabassoon, and a variety of percussion instruments (bass drum, cymbals, triangle).\u00a0 Most often in C major or C minor.\u00a0 Mozart, Overture to Abduction from the Seraglio<\/em>, opening section (0:00-1:35).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Majestic<\/em>: similar to C-major.\u00a0 Dotted rhythms, slow or moderate tempo, duple or quadruple meter, march-like, related to French overture.\u00a0 Often slow introductions to first movements. Opening of Haydn, Symphony No. 104 in D \u201cLondon\u201d (0:00-2:23).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Pastoral<\/em>: associated with shepherds, love, and repose.\u00a0 Slow, soft, specific key relationships, often relaxed triplet accompaniment, woodwinds featured, particularly oboes and flutes, some slow soft horn calls, slow harmonic motion, simple, lyrical melodic ideas often set as duets (imitation of operatic love arias or duets).\u00a0 Haydn, Symphony No. 7 in C \u201cLe midi,\u201d mvt. 2 (10:29-16:60).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Rustic<\/em>: varying degrees of culturally “low” music.\u00a0 Simple steady harmonies, simple repetitious melodies, drones, moderate triple meter (3\/4 L\u00e4ndler), fast duple meters (2\/4 contredanse) or triple\/compound meters (3\/8, 6\/8 Teitsch\/Waltz), often features “fiddling” passages and horns\/bassoons. Haydn uses characteristic doubling of a violin melody by an oboe or bassoon. Haydn, Symphony No. 82 in C \u201cThe Bear,\u201d finale<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Sacred<\/em>: polyphonic, complex harmony, usually slower tempos, and alle breve <\/em>meter (so-called “cut” time) but not always.\u00a0 Moderation of metric feel often necessary here. Coda of the finale of Mozart, Symphony No. 41 in C \u201cJupiter\u201d (10:42-end).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Sturm und Drang<\/em> (Storm and Stress): minor mode, unison passages, often descending melodies, fast tempo, syncopation in accompaniment against straight beats in melody, unexpected accents, harsh dissonances, sometimes polyphonic passages. Haydn, Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp minor \u201cFarewell,\u201d mvt. 1 (0:05-5:02).<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The topical states described above rely in part on mimesis<\/em>, the artistic imitation of natural or familiar objects, places, emotional expressions, and conditions. Mimesis is a complex matter, with varying degrees of exposure to the arts from the na\u00efve to the expert considered in its effectiveness. Despite its complexity, a helpful starting point for considering mimesis in instrumental music emerges by defining three types of mimetic treatment found in eighteenth-century music, from the most straightforward (most general, requiring the least knowledge of musical conventions) to the most conventionalized (requiring some knowledge of conventional dramatic meaning). These mimetic devices work together to generate musical meaning, and thus dramatic effects. Portions of the \u201cScene by the Brook\u201d movement (ii) of Beethoven\u2019s Symphony No. 6 in F \u201cPastoral\u201d demonstrate these mimetic approaches.<\/span><\/p>\n

Imitation of specific sounds<\/em>. Natural sounds such as birds and other animals, thunder, raindrops, or manmade sounds of battle or gunshots, or even musical gestures used for specific purposes such as bugle or hunting horn calls, bagpipe drones, and shepherd pipe signals, are imitated in a direct manner that is easily recognizable by listeners. In setting the outdoor scene of the second movement of his \u201cPastoral\u201d Symphony, Beethoven has the woodwinds imitate the sounds of actual birds, even going so far as to identify the birds by name in the score: nightingale (flutes), quail (oboe), and cuckoo (clarinet). Excerpt<\/a> (11:28-12:11).<\/span><\/p>\n

Imitation of motion<\/em>. Melodic direction and motivic ideas imitate movement, such as the rising (ascending melody) or setting (descending melody) of the sun, the moment of someone falling into death (descending chromatic melody), or, as in the beginning of the Beethoven \u201cPastoral\u201d Symphony movement, constantly moving descending motives in the second violins, violas, and cellos imitate the slow, easy, trickling motion of the brook. Excerpt<\/a> (0:00-0:58).<\/span><\/p>\n

Imitation of an emotional state, place, or idea.<\/em> The imitation of sounds and motion described above are elements that aid Beethoven in creating the dramatic state of his \u201cScene by the Brook\u201d second movement. But the totality of musical characteristics in this movement essentially imitate the state of repose in nature that Beethoven would like us to experience in this scene.\u00a0 The slow tempo with its rocking 12\/8 compoun<\/span>d meter (pervasive rhythmic triplet feel), compact, descending melodic motives that do not extend to the outer limits of an instrument\u2019s range, moments of silence, generally soft dynamics, orchestration limited to the strings and woodwinds with an abundance of woodwinds solos and soft trills in the violins as birds singing in the canopy above, all serve to give a general sense of relaxation, and being in a natural (not indoor) setting.\u00a0 These elements coupled\u00a0with the bird-call and brook-motion imitation come together to transport the listener to a reposed afternoon or evening in the woods or a meadow, along a beautiful flowing stream, up to the end of the movement. Excerpt<\/a> (10:50-end).<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

3. A symphony\u2019s dramatic content, especially a chamber symphony\u2019s, fits into specific expectations of musical structure<\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n

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\u201cThe chamber symphony, which constitutes a whole in and for itself and has no following music in view, reaches its goal only through a full sounding, brilliant, and fiery style. . . . Such an allegro is to the symphony what a Pindaric ode is to poetry. Like the ode, it lifts and stirs the soul of the listener and requires. the same spirit, the same elevated powers of imagination, and the same aesthetics in order to be happy therein. . . . The andante or largo between the first and last allegro has indeed not nearly so fixed a character, but is often of pleasant, pathetic, or sad expression.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

The self-standing chamber symphony had emerged as the most significant orchestral genre by the end of the eighteenth century. Schulz\u2019s description of the chamber symphony is his most thorough of the three types (theater, church, chamber), and shows that there were structural expectations for a chamber symphony, which worked together with \u00a0specific topoi<\/em> in generating drama. Schulz identifies the chamber symphony as having three individual movements<\/a>\u2014the outer movements expressing one set of dramatic topics that are characterized as grand or brilliant, and the inner movement, while not being \u201cfixed,\u201d contrasts the outer movements by expressing other, more intimate or \u201cpathetic\u201d topics, much like different acts or scenes of a single play. This three-movement<\/em> structure describes the Italian model of the symphony which had developed out of the three-part <\/em>form of the Italian opera overture, or\u00a0sinfonia,<\/em>\u00a0and continued to be preferred by some Italian composers, as well as those in Salzburg, London, and some in Paris and Vienna. \u00a0 One movement type that Schulz does not discuss, but became common, is based on the aristocratic minuet<\/em><\/a> dance, suggesting a galant<\/em> or courtly topic.\u00a0 (I call this the \u201cpowdered-wig\u201d movement when teaching it to younger musicians.) Beginning in the 1740s other composers, notably those at the Mannheim court, and some in Vienna and central Europe, inserted minuet movements between the slow and finale fast movements, resulting in a four-movement structure. <\/span><\/p>\n

The multi-movement framework that symphonies and other Classical instrumental pieces followed is referred to as the Sonata Cycle.\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0As Schulz describes, and the repertoire exemplifies, each movement of the cycle had its own dramatic-topical characteristics, and its own musical form, displaying some common thematic materials and tonal or key relationships<\/a>. Before summarizing the four-movement Sonata Cycle, some helpful theoretical definitions are in order.<\/span><\/p>\n

Tonal\/Key relationships.<\/em> A key or tonality is a set of seven (or ten) distinct pitches used any given time, identified by a keynote (strongest pitch) and a mode (major and minor).\u00a0 Below is a chart called the Circle of Keys (or Circle of Fifths) that can be used to explore key relationships.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

During the late eighteenth century, certain closely-related keys were used within and among the movements.\u00a0 These keys were usually next to each other on the Circle of Keys, or reflect a mode change.\u00a0 For example, a piece said to be in the key of C major would begin and end in that key (called the \u201ctonic\u201d key), but would also contain material in G major (one position clockwise, called \u201cdominant\u201d) and F major (one position counter-clockwise, called \u201csub-dominant\u201d)\u2014those keys with keynotes a fourth or fifth apart\u2014and possibly in C minor (change of mode to \u201cparallel minor,\u201d three positions counter-clockwise).\u00a0 A piece in C minor might also explore the major key represented by the same sets of pitches\u2014E-flat major (same place on the wheel, called \u201crelative major\u201d).\u00a0 Beethoven\u2019s symphonies follow these inherited common tonal relationships, he explored other relationships in his later symphonies, particularly those whose keynotes are separated by a third, e.g. C major and E-flat major or A major, called \u201cmediant\u201d (\u201csub-mediant\u201d) key relationships.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Movement forms<\/em>. Several common movement forms also emerge in the eighteenth century.\u00a0 The most complex and yet most common is the so-called Sonata-allegro form<\/a><\/em>, which is almost always the form of first movements, and is based on contrasting themes highlighting different keys, which are explored through developmental procedures<\/em><\/a>, and finally are resolved.\u00a0 A useful map of Sonata-allegro form can be found here<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Other common movement forms:<\/span><\/p>\n

Theme and Variation<\/a><\/em>. A simple usually two-part melody is introduced, then repeated several times, each time with a little difference in material called a variation.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Map: Theme\u2014Var. 1\u2014Var. 2\u2014Var. 3 . . .<\/span><\/p>\n

Minuet and Trio form<\/em>.\u00a0 A type of ternary form<\/a><\/em>.\u00a0 Dance music often came in pairs, with the first dance returning (called da Capo<\/em> or \u201cto the top\u201d) after the second dance.\u00a0 The individual dances would usually have very predictable phrase structures in themselves, referred to as rounded binary<\/a><\/em> or strict\/simple binary<\/a><\/em>, which were two-part forms that contained internal repeats (||: \u00a0:|| signals to repeat the material in between).<\/span><\/p>\n

Map: \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Minuet \u00a0||: a :||: b\u00a0 a\u2019 :|| (rounded binary) or ||: a :||: b :|| (simple binary), then \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0
\n<\/span>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Trio\u00a0\u00a0 ||: c :||: d\u00a0 c\u2019 :|| or ||: c :||: d :||, then
\n<\/span>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Minuet \u201cda Capo\u201d\u00a0 ||: a :||: b\u00a0 a\u2019 :|| or ||: a :||: b :|| (with or without repeats)<\/span><\/p>\n

Rondo<\/a><\/em>.\u00a0 A \u201crondo\u201d theme, usually simple or rounded binary in its structure, is introduced, and returns several times following new material called \u201cepisodes.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

Map:\u00a0 A (rondo theme)\u2014B (episode)\u2014A\u2014C (another episode)\u2014A\u00a0 = \u201cfive-part rondo,\u201d\u00a0 or
\n<\/span>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 A\u2014B\u2014A\u2014C\u2014A\u2014B\u2014A \u00a0=\u00a0 \u201cseven-part rondo.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The four-movement<\/em> Sonata Cycle<\/em>.\u00a0 The typical cycle of movements partially described by Schulz, and that Beethoven inherited, looked something like this:<\/span><\/p>\n

[Note: Studying\u00a0Mozart’s Serenade in G, K. 525 “Eine kleine Nachtmusik”<\/a>\u00a0offers a helpful, clear model for understanding the four-movement Sonata Cycle.]\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

First Movement\u2014
\n<\/em><\/u><\/span>Tempo<\/a>: Fast (allegro), possibly with a slow (adagio) introduction.<\/span><\/p>\n

Key: tonic key (key identified in the title)<\/span><\/p>\n

Form: Sonata-allegro form, with the second theme area being in the dominant (in a major-mode work) or relative major (in a minor-mode work).<\/span><\/p>\n

Topics and Character: Full orchestra, noble, brilliant, C-major, other grand topics, sometimes contrasted by more lyrical and perhaps pastoral second themes; might start with a slow introduction of a majestic topic.<\/span><\/p>\n

Second (Slow) Movement\u2014
\n<\/u><\/span>Tempo: Moderate (andante) or slow (largo, larghetto, adagio)<\/span><\/p>\n

Key: Not the tonic; usually dominant, sub-dominant, or relative or parallel major or minor.<\/span><\/p>\n

Form: Lots of variety.\u00a0 Might be a sonata form of some kind, or a Theme and Variation (favorite of Haydn in his late symphonies), or maybe Ternary.<\/span><\/p>\n

Topics and Character: Contrasts grandeur of first movement.\u00a0 Subdued, usually reduced orchestra and softer dynamics at beginning.\u00a0 Relaxed, reposed or melancholy, sad, love, pastoral topics.<\/span><\/p>\n

Third (Dance) Movement\u2014
\n<\/em><\/u><\/span>Tempo: Moderate, based on triple-meter galant<\/em> (\u201cpowered-wig\u201d) Minuet<\/a><\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Key: tonic key<\/span><\/p>\n

Form: Minuet-and-Trio ternary form, with rounded- and simple\/strict binary internal structures.<\/span><\/p>\n

Topics and Character: Noble, galant, aristocratic minuet(s), possibly contrasted by a more rustic, simple trio based on the L\u00e4ndler<\/a><\/em> Austrian folk dance.\u00a0 Full orchestra for the minuets, reduced orchestra, often highlighting wind instruments, for the trios. [The third movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 96<\/a> offers a clear example of this Minuet-L\u00e4ndler juxtaposition.] \u00a0Haydn\u2019s later works, particularly his string quartets and symphonies, began playing with the high expectations this movement contained, particularly regarding its moderate tempo, clear triple meter, and predictable phrase lengths (based on four-bar segments). \u00a0The result was a Scherzo<\/a><\/em> (\u201cjoke\u201d), which was too fast (tempo), had misplaced accents to throw off the triple meter, and added bars in the phrases to remove the predictability of the phrase lengths.\u00a0 The joke, then, was the thwarting of the listeners\u2019 expectations based on the predictability of the movement. \u00a0Nearly all of Beethoven\u2019s symphonic third movements are scherzos, whether called that or not.<\/span><\/p>\n

Fourth (Finale) Movement\u2014
\n<\/u><\/span>Tempo: Usually the fastest of all of the movements.<\/span><\/p>\n

Key: tonic key<\/span><\/p>\n

Form:\u00a0 Sonata-allegro or Rondo.<\/span><\/p>\n

Topics and Character: While Schulz describes them along the same lines as the first movement, finales tended to be the most light-hearted and comic, even rustic, movement in the cycle\u2014a \u201chappy ending.\u201d Folk and rustic topics prevail, although some composers do re-establish a noble or \u201clearned\u201d character, such as the finale of Mozart\u2019s Symphony No. 41 \u201cJupiter.\u201d<\/a>\u00a0 Beethoven came to treat the finale as a \u201cheroic, victorious\u201d dramatic goal which finally overcame the struggles of the rest of the symphony (the \u201castra\u201d of per ardua ad astra<\/em>), rather than a light-hearted, more comically-related happy ending.<\/span><\/p>\n

As has been hinted at in the above descriptions, Beethoven will move the dramatic impact he detected as inherent in the Sonata Cycle to new directions and profundity by taking a teleological or end-aimed, goal-driven approach to the cycle, particularly through adding compositional weight to the last two movements.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014Contributor:<\/a> MER<\/span><\/p>\n

Beethoven’s Orchestra\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

Instrumentation and growth ca. 1740-1800<\/span><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em><\/span>Schulz\u2019s description of the instruments that \u201cbelong to\u201d a symphony reflects the mid-century development of the orchestral ensemble, which continued to grow in size and tonal variety up to the time Beethoven completed his First Symphony in 1800, and throughout his own symphonies.\u00a0 The changes to and growth of orchestral instrumentation in the latter half of the eighteenth century occurred because of the recognition of instrumental music\u2019s dramatic agency in music for the stage, and its possibilities of providing the same theatrical effects for audiences on its own, particularly through the referencing of musical topoi<\/em> (see part 2 of the above essay).<\/span><\/p>\n

Mid-century. <\/em>As stated above, the foundation of the orchestra mid-century was a four-part string texture with multiple players on each string part, which would often be combined with four or seven additional instrumental parts, giving the \u201cOrchestra of 8\u201d and \u201cOrchestra of 11\u201d :<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Four-part Strings<\/u>\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nFour-part Winds \u201cof 8\u201d<\/u>\u00a0 <\/span><\/td>\nAdditional parts \u201cof 11\u201d<\/u><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 1 \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nOboe 1 (Flute 1?)<\/span><\/td>\nTrumpet 1<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 2<\/span><\/td>\nOboe 2 (Flute 2?) <\/span><\/td>\nTrumpet 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Viola \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nHorn 1<\/span><\/td>\nTimpani (tonic & dominant)\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Basso* \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nHorn 2<\/span><\/td>\n\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
*Cellos, Double basses, 1 Bassoon, Harpsichord(?)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n\u00a0<\/td>\n\u00a0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

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1760s-70s.<\/em> During the 1760s and into the mid 1770s, the winds in opera orchestras and several court orchestras, including those in Vienna, Salzburg, Mannheim, and the Esterh\u00e1zy court in Eisenstadt, Haydn\u2019s employer, began to expand.\u00a0 This was due in part to the \u201creform operas\u201d of Christoph Willibald von Gluck<\/a>, but also to an emerging cosmopolitanism that valued wind players from Central Europe, and an inclusion of court music of the Harmonie<\/em><\/a>\u2014wind ensemble\u2014the core of which included two oboes, two horns, and two bassoons, but could have other wind instruments such as flutes and clarinets added or replacing the oboes. The symphonies of the Mannheim composers<\/a> were especially influential on others for their instrumental colors and orchestral effects. The first significant regular shift in this direction was the addition of one or two flutes above the oboes, followed quickly by the transfer of the bassoon from the basso part to its own part and the addition of another bassoon part. This became a regular configuration for symphonic works by the late 1770s.\u00a0 The Harmonie <\/em>was commonly associated with topics related to the outdoors, such as pastoral scenes, rural people and places, the hunt, etc. As before, the addition of two trumpet and timpani parts would signal the celebratory \u201cC-major\u201d fanfare style, royal and battle topics.\u00a0 Thus, by the end of the 1770s, there is a real sense of two different instrumental ensembles\u2014strings and winds\u2014at times working together and at times functioning separately, allowing for a great variety of tonal color and dramatic\/topical possibilities.\u00a0 The increase in the winds also reduced the need for harpsichord to play with the basso and fill in harmonies. By 1780, a typical symphony would have the following instrumentation, which would be adjusted for specific desired dramatic purposes:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Four-part Strings<\/u>\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nWinds<\/u>\u00a0 <\/span><\/td>\nAdditional parts (C-major style)<\/u><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 1 \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nFlutes 1 (& 2?)<\/span><\/td>\nTrumpets 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 2<\/span><\/td>\nOboes 1 & 2 <\/span><\/td>\nTimpani (tonic & dominant)\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Viola \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nBassoons 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n\u00a0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Basso* \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nHorns 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
*Cellos & Double basses \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n\u00a0<\/td>\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Some operas would also include other instruments such as harpsichord and harps for accompanying voices, and trombones for representing sacred, supernatural, or ghostly (ombra<\/em>) scenes, but trombones in symphonies would have to wait until Beethoven\u2019s Fifth Symphony.<\/span><\/p>\n

1780s-90s<\/em>. By the last two decades of the eighteenth century, symphony composers were regularly using the above instrumentation, but experimenting with other mixtures.\u00a0 Mannheim and Parisian composers, as well as Mozart, made more common use of the clarinet, either replacing oboes or added to them.\u00a0 After Mozart moved to Vienna in 1781, his operas, piano concertos, and symphonies all show increased and interesting uses of the clarinet, reflecting a mastery of the instrument he gained in writing several wind serenades during his last years in Salzburg (late 1770s). He wrote two version of his G minor Symphony No. 40 in 1788\u2014the first without clarinets and the second including clarinets, which required some changes to the oboe parts. Haydn came to the clarinet later, with five of his last six \u201cLondon\u201d Symphonies (Nos. 99-104, composed 1794-95) including clarinets, especially for folk or rustic topics, as in the trio of the third movement of his Symphony No. 103<\/a>, where clarinets and a bassoon double the string melodies, enhancing the folk quality of this L\u00e4ndler<\/em><\/a>.\u00a0 Trumpets and timpani also came to be used more regularly, in a variety of keys.\u00a0 When Beethoven arrived in Vienna in 1792, and began his symphonic oeuvre, he inherited the following quite colorful \u201cstandard\u201d symphony instrumentation:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Four- or Five-part Strings<\/u>\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nWinds\/Brass\/Percussion\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/u><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 1 \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nFlutes 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Violin 2<\/span><\/td>\nOboes 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Viola \u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nClarinets 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Cello*\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\nBassoons 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Double bass*<\/span><\/td>\nHorns 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
*together or separated<\/span><\/td>\nTrumpets 1 & 2<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u00a0<\/td>\nTimpani (tonic & dominant)\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Beethoven would continue to expand the orchestra in his symphonies by adding parts for piccolo (Syms. 5, 6, 9), contrabassoon (Syms. 5, 9), and trombones (three in Syms. 5 & 9, two in Sym. 6). Others before him had occasionally included four horns instead of just two, as well as the \u201cJanissary\u201d percussion instruments of bass drum, cymbals, triangle, but these were rare.\u00a0 Beethoven would have three horns playing in his \u201cEroica\u201d Symphony No. 3, and the Janissary percussion in Symphony No. 9. \u00a0He would also regularly separate the cello parts from the double basses, giving a five-part string texture. \u00a0In all of these cases, Beethoven was careful to use these instrumental sounds to bring to life the dramatic topics with which they were associated, and not just for the purpose of increasing the sound.\u00a0 In other words, Beethoven\u2019s dramatic outlook in his symphonies led him to a consideration of orchestral sound that would clarify and make more immediate for the listener an emotional journey unique to each symphony.<\/span><\/p>\n

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The Instruments<\/span><\/p>\n

The instruments of Beethoven\u2019s day were constructed somewhat differently than those of today\u2019s orchestras, and thus had different sounds and strengths or modes of playing that reflected their construction and character.\u00a0 Below are some brief descriptions of the orchestral instruments for which Beethoven composed, and some demonstrative videos that provide details of each instrument\u2019s construction and sound.<\/span><\/p>\n

String instruments<\/em>. (See construction images.) \u00a0In general, string instruments of Beethoven\u2019s time had shorter fingerboards, which were at a much flatter angle from the body, and shorter bridges, so the strings were closer to the body of the instruments.\"\"
\nCellos did not yet have endpins, at least not as a regular feature, so they were held on the calves of the players. Strings were made of sheep intestines\u2014\u201cgut\u201d strings\u2014rather than metal as today.\u00a0 The resulting sound was less bright and softer than today\u2019s strings.\u00a0 Modern players will sometimes say that the period set-up allowed for subtlety and a delicacy of expression that modern instruments do not. Bows, too, were constructed differently; the wood was more parallel with the hair than in modern bows, although by 1800 they more closely resembled modern bows than they had even twenty years before. See the \u201cViotti Bow\u201d in the diagram below.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Videos about the string instruments
\n<\/u><\/span>The Bow:\u00a0 Henrietta Wayne, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment (OAE)<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Violin and Viola:\u00a0 Lisa Grodin<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Cello: \u00a0<\/span>Luise Buchberger, OAE<\/a><\/p>\n

Double bass: John Feeney, American Classical Orchestra<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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Woodwinds<\/em>. Generally speaking, woodwinds might sound more \u201crustic\u201d to modern ears than their current counterparts, particularly oboes and bassoons. This made them ideal for use in pastoral and rustic topoi<\/em>. Flutes were made of wood, not metal, thus giving them a softer sound. Clarinets generally had a less warm sound than the modern instrument, and the tone qualities of the low, medium, and high registers were noticeably different: the low \u201cbarked,\u201d the middle was warm, and the high brilliant. \u00a0All of the woodwind instruments had fewer keys, and thus different fingering systems were developed to alleviate some intonation difficulties.<\/span><\/p>\n

Videos about the woodwinds
\n<\/u><\/span>Flute and Piccolo: Lisa Benznosiuk, OAE<\/a>.\u00a0 \u00a0ORR Symphony No. 5, piccolo<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Oboe:\u00a0 Dan Bates, OAE. <\/a>\u00a0\u00a0ORR Symphony No. 5 Oboe solo on period oboe.<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Clarinet: Emily Worthington, Boxwood & Brass<\/a>. \u00a0Symphony No. 8, mvt. 3 trio: clarinet and horn solos <\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Bassoon and Contrabassoon: Peter de Koningh, Boxwood & Brass<\/a>. \u00a0David Chatterton, OAE<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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Brass and Timpani.<\/em>\u00a0 The most prominent difference in the brass instruments compared to today is that they were \u201cnatural\u201d instruments, devoid of valves that allowed them to play chromatically (all of the pitches).\u00a0 Thus, they could only play specific pitches in the lower register, but more melodically as they got higher.\u00a0 This resulted in stylistic playing gestures such as \u201chorn fifths\u201d and fanfare figures that related to topics such as the hunt and the rustic for horns, and battle, military, and royal associations for trumpets. Horns were called upon to play in most keys, using a system of interchangeable tubing lengths called \u201ccrooks.\u201d Trumpets were most commonly built to lengths for playing in C major and D major, but trumpets in B-flat and E-flat were also used.\u00a0 Throughout the eighteenth century, horn players developed a sophisticated technique of \u201chorn stopping\u201d which allowed for chromatic playing even in the lower registers, although with some changes in tone quality. Trumpets were generally less bright in tone quality than their modern versions, and could play with both power and delicacy. Timpani almost always played with trumpets, but they were beginning to gain some independence.\u00a0 They were usually tuned to the tonic and dominant pitches of the piece, e.g. D-A, C-G, B-flat\u2014F, and did not have quick tuning mechanisms such as the pedals of today\u2019s instruments.\u00a0 Timpani sticks were harder than today\u2019s, usually wood and sometimes wrapped with leather. Trombones had smaller bells, and usually played together in an ensemble of alto, tenor, and bass, each of a different length and tone color. Trombones (sackbuts) had long been used for doubling choral voice parts in sacred music, thus giving them topical associations with the sacred, supernatural, and ghastly.<\/span><\/p>\n

Videos about brass and timpani
\n<\/u><\/span>Horns: This video by Richard Seraphinoff<\/a> describes many of the aspects of horn construction and playing techniques. Anneke Scott, Boxwood & Brass<\/a>.\u00a0 Symphony No. 8, mvt. 3 trio: clarinet and horn solos on period instruments<\/a>
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Trumpets:\u00a0 EBS & ORR video: evolution of orchestral trumpets from Bach to Berlioz<\/a>.
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Trombones: ORR Symphony No. 5, mvt. 4 excerpt, including period trombones, trumpets, other winds<\/a>.
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

Timpani: Mark Goodenberger, Portland Baroque Orchestra<\/a>
\n<\/span>Others (bass drum, cymbals, triangle)<\/span><\/p>\n

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Practice of re-orchestration<\/span><\/p>\n

During the early years of the nineteenth century the instruments described above were undergoing changes in construction at a fairly quick pace, more and more resembling those we hear in today\u2019s orchestras.\u00a0 String instruments were getting longer and brighter, new systems of keys were being developed for woodwind instruments, largely influenced by Theobold Boehm\u2019s flute system<\/a>, and valves were added to horns and trumpets, allowing for fully chromatic playing; Heinrich St\u00f6lzel<\/a> was among the first to do this.\u00a0 Such changes in the capabilities of the instruments, as well as in their tone qualities which effected the balance of sounds in the orchestra, spawned a practice of conductors re-orchestrating Beethoven\u2019s works. This was not a new practice; even in the eighteenth century, as older music was being brought into the contemporary repertoire, \u201cmodernizing\u201d was considered essential for offering the best performances for the public. Perhaps the most well-known eighteenth-century case of modernizing a piece was Mozart\u2019s re-orchestration of Handel\u2019s Messiah<\/em><\/a>, a project the diplomat and music connoisseur Baron Gottfried van Swieten<\/a> urged Mozart to undertake in 1789, as van Swieten was introducing Handel\u2019s music to Vienna. The most noteworthy Beethoven re-orchestrations were by Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, and Felix Weingartner. Wagner and Weingartner published essays on their reorchestrations, and some of these rewritings are still in use today. (See Felix Weingartner, On the Performance of Beethoven\u2019s Symphonies.<\/em>)\u00a0<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

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Orchestra size for first and early performances<\/span><\/p>\n

The numbers of instruments in orchestras of the day widely varied.\u00a0 Most orchestras in Vienna concerts would have had about 35-40 players, with the distribution being approximately 12-16 violins, 3-4 violas, 3-4 cellos, 4-5 basses, and one-per-part in the winds. \u00a0In private concerts these numbers would have been on the lower end, even slightly less. After about 1810 some special concerts, called Akademies, would be able to secure larger forces by combining professional and amateur performers.\u00a0 These larger groups might be the size of a modern symphony orchestra, having as many as 40 violins, 12 violas, 10 cellos, and 8 double basses, at times doubled by one or two contrabassoons. When string forces included more than about 25 violins and comparable violas, cellos, and basses, wind parts would be doubled (two-per-part) for the tutti<\/em>\u2014full orchestra\u2014passages.\u00a0 Below is a list of the first performances of Beethoven\u2019s symphonies with estimates of the ensemble sizes for each based on existing evidence, and information on series of Beethoven symphony performances by the Gesellshaft der Musikfreunde and Concerts Spirituel during Beethoven\u2019s lifetime.<\/span><\/p>\n

String numbers: Violin1+2.Viola.Cello.Bass
\n<\/span>Winds: Single=one player per part, Double=two players per part on tutti<\/em> sections.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 1 in C, Op. 21
\n<\/u><\/span>First Performance: 2 April 1800, Akademie in Burgtheater, probably the Italian Opera Orchestra<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size:\u00a0 8+8.4.4.5 \/ Single winds\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Reviewer in Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung<\/em> (hereafter AMZ) of 1800 said this orchestra had five basses.\u00a0 Other numbers estimated from that statement based on common orchestra sizes.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 2 in D, Op. 36
\n<\/u><\/span>First Performance: 4 or 5 April 1803, Akademie at Theater-an-der-Wien.<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size: 6+6.3.2.4 \/ Single winds<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Approximate size of orchestra according to Adam Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz<\/em>(New York: Broude Bros., 1949). Symphony No. 1 also performed.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 3 in E-flat, Op. 55 \u201cEroica\u201d
\n<\/u><\/span>First Performances: 9 June 1804, Lobkowitz Palace, Vienna (private); 7 April 1805, Theater-an-der-Wien (public)<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size: 3+3.2.2.2 \/ single winds (private; \u201cat least . . .\u201d); 6+6.3.2.4 \/ single winds (public, estimate)<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Numbers given for the first private performance at the Lobkowitz Palace are based on a letter by Beethoven requesting \u201cat least\u201d these forces. Numbers for first public concert based on the Carse source cited above.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 4 in B-flat, Op. 60
\n<\/u><\/span>First performance: March 1807, Lobkowitz Palace, Vienna.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size: 6+6.3.4.2 \/ single winds<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Numbers based on a description of an earlier \u201crun through\u201d of symphonies at the Lobkowitz Palace.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67, and Symphony No. 6 in F, Op. 68 \u201cPastoral\u201d
\n<\/u><\/span>First performance: 22 December 1808, Akademie at Theater-an-der-Wien.<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size: 12-16.3-4.3-4.3-5 \/ single winds<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Both symphonies premiered in same concert, with Beethoven leading the orchestra.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 7 in A, Op. 92
\n<\/u><\/span>First performance:\u00a0 8 Dec. 1813, Akademie at University Concert Hall, Vienna.<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size:\u00a0 at least 13+12.7.6.4 \/ possibly double winds<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: These numbers based on a report of a Clement academy concerts from 1807-08, when academies had moved the larger University Concert Hall; Beethoven\u2019s first four symphonies were performed on these concerts. The orchestra for the 1813 Symphony No. 7 concert was likely larger. See Otto Biba, \u201cConcert Life in Vienna,\u201d in Beethoven, Performers and Critics: International Beethoven Congress, Detroit, 1977<\/em> (Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1980).<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 8 in F, Op. 93
\n<\/u><\/span>First performance: 27 February 1814, Akademie at palace Redoutensaal, Vienna.<\/span><\/p>\n

Estimated orchestra size:\u00a0 18+18.14.12.7(+2CBsns) \/ double winds<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks: Concert included Symphony No. 7 and Wellington\u2019s Victory.<\/em> String numbers were reported by Beethoven himself in a letter, and such a large string contingent would have probably called for doubling the wind parts at tutti<\/em> (full orchestra) sections, as was the practice of the day. In Beethoven\u2019s list of string numbers, he included the comment \u201cand two contrabassoons\u201d following the bass number, indicating that, as was sometimes the practice, contrabassoons could double the bass parts in larger orchestras.<\/span><\/p>\n

Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 \u201cChoral\u201d
\n<\/u><\/span>First performance: 7 May 1824, K\u00e4rtnerthor Theater, Vienna.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Orchestra size: 12+12.10.12.12 \/ double winds \/ 80-100 in chorus.<\/span><\/p>\n

Remarks:\u00a0 According to Thayer (Life of Beethoven<\/em>, ed. Forbes, 905), Schindler wrote a letter to Louis Duport on 24 April 1824 regarding size of the ensemble for the upcoming concert, listing the numbers given here.\u00a0 It was a mixture of amateurs and professionals, and only two rehearsals were possible before the performance.<\/span><\/p>\n

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The Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde performed all of Beethoven\u2019s symphonies except Nos. 1, 6, and 9 between 1816 and 1821.\u00a0 According to Biba (\u201cConcert Life in Vienna\u201d), the size of this large orchestra at this time was 20+20.12.10.8 \/ double winds<\/span><\/p>\n

The Paris Concerts Spirituel, in its two seasons 1819-20 and 1820-21, performed all of the eight completed symphonies. Based on a copperplate image of seating from 1825, Clive Brown (\u201cThe Orchestra in Beethoven\u2019s Vienna\u201d) estimates the orchestra\u2019s size at this time was 10+10.10.6.4 \/ single winds.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Direction and instrument \u201cseating\u201d arrangement<\/span><\/p>\n

The modern baton conductor was not yet a fixture in orchestras for instrumental music.\u00a0 Orchestras were led by either the concertmaster (first violinist), or less often a keyboardist. In the case of vocal music, a \u201cdual direction\u201d was often practiced, where the concertmaster would lead the instruments and the keyboardist (organ, harpsichord, or fortepiano) the voices.\u00a0 However, reports of performances of Beethoven\u2019s symphonies describe situations where Beethoven would be leading the ensemble using elaborate gesticulations, or would be on stage next to the leader providing tempos.\u00a0 The story of the first performance of the Ninth Symphony includes Beethoven\u2019s role in setting tempos, but also relates the tender moment that occurred at the end, when the alto soloist Caroline Unger had to turn Beethoven towards the audience so he could observe its enthusiastic applause, which he could not hear.<\/span><\/p>\n

While we use the term \u201cseating\u201d to describe the arrangement of instruments in the performance space, this is misleading.\u00a0 During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries musicians generally stood for performances, except for cellists and keyboardists. There are several images and descriptions of instrument configurations from the years surrounding 1800, from opera houses, festivals, chamber and other instrumental performances.\u00a0 While these indicate a variety of possibilities, a few consistencies do present themselves:<\/span><\/p>\n